Maria Karolina von Österreich

Maria Carolina of Habsburg-Lorraine was born on August 13, 1752, at Schönbrunn Palace in Vienna. She was a daughter of Maria Theresa, ruler of the Austrian dominions, and her husband, Francis I Stephen of Lorraine. In the imperial family, she bore the full name Maria Karolina Luise Josepha Johanna Antonia, but was usually called Charlotte. She grew up with her siblings and was especially close to her younger sister, Marie Antoinette. The two were initially raised almost like twins, but Maria Theresa separated them in 1767 because their lively behavior toward their governess was considered too unruly. Maria Carolina had a determined, impulsive, and dominant character. Her mother sometimes criticized her stubbornness and arrogance, yet also recognized that she was the daughter most similar to her in temperament. The archduchess received a comprehensive education intended for a member of the court. She studied Latin, natural sciences, and several foreign languages, although she had difficulty with written Italian. She was also instructed in courtly accomplishments and excelled at dancing, music, and riding. Her life was shaped by the dynastic marriage policy of the Habsburgs. Two older sisters, successively betrothed to Ferdinand IV of Naples and III of Sicily, died of smallpox. To preserve the alliance between the Habsburgs and the Bourbons, Maria Carolina was ultimately chosen as the king’s future wife. She accepted the decision reluctantly and feared that she might suffer the same fate as her deceased sisters. Nevertheless, under the guidance of her mother and her governess, she prepared for her new role. On April 7, 1768, Maria Carolina married Ferdinand by proxy in Vienna. That same day she set out for Italy. Her journey took her through several cities, where she was received by princes, relatives, and church dignitaries. She entered the Kingdom of Naples on May 12 and met Ferdinand in person for the first time. The religious wedding ceremony took place at the Palace of Caserta. At first, both spouses were disappointed in each other. Maria Carolina considered her husband unattractive and intellectually uninteresting, while Ferdinand made disparaging remarks about her appearance and behavior. Communication was also difficult because he mainly spoke Neapolitan. Despite this initial estrangement, she gradually won his trust and increasing political support. The marriage produced an exceptionally large family. Between 1772 and 1793, Maria Carolina gave birth to eighteen children, seven of whom reached adulthood. They included the future King Francis I of the Two Sicilies, Maria Theresa, who married Francis II of Habsburg-Lorraine and later became the first empress of Austria, and Maria Amalia, the future queen of the French. Several of her children died in childhood, often from illnesses such as smallpox. After the birth of the first male heir in 1775, Maria Carolina gained the right to attend meetings of the State Council. This marked the beginning of her rapid rise as one of the most influential figures in the kingdom. In 1777, the longtime head of government, Bernardo Tanucci, was dismissed, and the queen gained considerable influence over her husband’s decisions. During the first phase of her political activity, she supported reforms in the spirit of enlightened absolutism. She promoted administrative improvements, cultural development, and greater Neapolitan independence from Spain. Particularly noteworthy was the Statute of San Leucio, which regulated the organization of a manufacturing settlement founded by the Bourbons near Caserta. It granted men and women broad legal equality in education, pay, inheritance, and the choice of a spouse. At the same time, the Neapolitan court became a meeting place for scholars, artists, and diplomats. Maria Carolina maintained close relations with the British diplomatic community and became friends with Emma Hamilton, the wife of the British ambassador William Hamilton. This connection strengthened political ties between Naples and Great Britain. The French Revolution fundamentally changed Maria Carolina’s outlook. At first, she is said to have viewed some of the revolutionaries’ demands with sympathy. The execution of Louis XVI, and especially the execution of her sister Marie Antoinette in 1793, made her a committed opponent of revolutionary movements. She turned away from the Enlightenment circles she had previously supported, endorsed the harsh persecution of Jacobin sympathizers, and, after a conspiracy was uncovered in 1794, ordered the suppression of Freemasonry in the kingdom. Together with Minister John Acton, she strengthened cooperation with Great Britain and Austria and prepared the kingdom militarily for a French attack. After Napoleon’s victories in Italy, Naples was forced in 1796 to accept a peace treaty favorable to France. In 1798, Maria Carolina secretly concluded a defensive alliance with Austria. Following the British naval victory at the Nile, the kingdom joined the Second Coalition against France. The ensuing French attack forced Ferdinand and Maria Carolina to flee to Sicily in January 1799. In Naples, the French-backed Parthenopaean Republic was proclaimed. It introduced several reforms modeled on France, but lasted only a few months. In June 1799, Bourbon forces under Cardinal Fabrizio Ruffo recaptured the city. A comprehensive punishment of the republicans followed, and many leading figures were executed. Among the victims was Eleonora Pimentel Fonseca, who had previously enjoyed Maria Carolina’s protection. In 1800, the queen traveled to Vienna with three unmarried daughters and her youngest son, Leopold. There she focused mainly on dynastic marriage plans and maintained close contacts with the imperial family. She returned to Naples in 1802 but retained her considerable political influence. French dominance in Europe once again threatened the Bourbon monarchy. After Napoleon’s victory at Austerlitz, French troops invaded Naples in 1806. Ferdinand and his family fled once more to Sicily, while Napoleon first installed Joseph Bonaparte and later Joachim Murat as kings. During the second Sicilian exile, Bourbon rule depended heavily on British military and financial support. Maria Carolina, however, increasingly came into conflict with British influence over Sicilian politics. In 1813, Ferdinand transferred the government to his son Francis, definitively reducing the queen’s political power. She returned to Vienna and worked there to secure her husband’s restoration to the Neapolitan throne. In doing so, she occasionally clashed with the Austrian emperor Francis I and his chancellor, Metternich. Maria Carolina died on September 8, 1814, at Hetzendorf Palace near Vienna, probably of a stroke. She witnessed neither Napoleon’s final defeat nor her husband’s return to the throne, confirmed by the Congress of Vienna. She was buried in Vienna’s Capuchin Crypt, the traditional burial place of the Habsburgs.