Margarethe von Parma

Margaret of Parma was born on July 5, 1522, in Oudenaarde, the illegitimate daughter of Emperor Charles V and the Flemish maidservant Johanna van der Gheynst. She was named after her great-aunt Margaret of Austria, who was then governor of the Habsburg Netherlands. Margaret initially grew up with the Brussels family de Douvrin, later living at her great-aunt’s court in Mechelen and at the Brussels court of her aunt Maria, the dowager queen of Hungary. There she received an education appropriate for a princess and became an excellent rider and hunter. In July 1529, Charles V officially recognized her as his “natural” daughter. From childhood, Margaret was intended for a politically important marriage. After Charles V was reconciled with Pope Clement VII, her marriage to Alessandro de’ Medici was arranged. He was the Duke of Florence and probably the illegitimate son of the pope. Margaret was sent to Italy in 1533 and initially lived in Naples, where she was prepared for her role as an Italian princess. On February 29, 1536, she married Alessandro in the presence of her father. The marriage lasted barely a year: on January 6, 1537, Alessandro was murdered by his distant relative and companion Lorenzino. Margaret then withdrew to the Fortezza da Basso in Florence. The new duke, Cosimo I de’ Medici, wished to marry the young widow, but Charles V refused because he had other political plans for his daughter. The following year, Margaret was married to Ottavio Farnese, the son of Pier Luigi, an illegitimate son of Pope Paul III. The marriage contract was signed in October 1538, and the wedding took place in Rome in November. The union began unhappily. Margaret considered Ottavio immature and initially refused to live with him. Only after pressure from Charles V did she begin a normal married life. Political tensions between the emperor and the pope also placed a heavy strain on the marriage. After 1540, the relationship improved for a time. In 1545, Margaret gave birth to twin sons, one of whom died young. The surviving son, Alessandro Farnese, later became a successful military commander in the service of King Philip II of Spain. Shortly after the birth of her children, Margaret again came into conflict with her husband and his family. In 1545, Pope Paul III had made Parma and Piacenza duchies and granted them to his son Pier Luigi. After Pier Luigi was murdered, Ottavio Farnese sought to secure his inheritance and even opposed his father-in-law, Charles V, in doing so. The disputes were not settled until 1556–1557, when Philip II recognized Ottavio as ruler of Parma, Piacenza, and Novara. To secure his loyalty to the Habsburgs, Alessandro was sent to the Spanish court. In 1557, Margaret delivered him to her half-brother Philip II in London. Shortly afterward, she was no longer permitted to visit her abdicated father, who had withdrawn to a monastery in Spain. Following the Peace of Cateau-Cambrésis, Philip II appointed Margaret governor of the Habsburg Netherlands in 1559. She succeeded Emanuel Philibert of Savoy. Margaret left Italy on June 25, arrived in Ghent in July, and was presented to the States General in August. Philip then returned to Spain, leaving her to govern the seventeen largely autonomous provinces. Margaret faced an extremely difficult task. She was expected to implement Philip II’s political, religious, and fiscal measures, but encountered resistance from the Dutch nobility. Her own freedom of action was also restricted by the king’s secret instructions. Cardinal Antoine Perrenot de Granvelle played a central role in the government and advocated a strongly centralized system of rule. The nobles opposed his influence and demanded a greater role in government, the administration of justice, and military affairs. The situation was aggravated by high taxes, economic difficulties, a trade conflict with England, and periodic shortages of grain. At the same time, an increasing part of the population was turning toward Calvinism. Margaret herself was a moderate Catholic and sought to preserve Catholicism as the only officially recognized religion without resorting to unnecessary severity. Philip II’s planned reorganization of the bishoprics, harsher persecution of heresy, and expansion of the Inquisition nevertheless met with widespread opposition. Under pressure from the nobility, Margaret eventually supported Granvelle’s dismissal; the cardinal left the Netherlands in March 1564. The conflict did not end with his departure. Following poor harvests, increasing economic hardship, and renewed executions for heresy, the opposition became more radical. In December 1565, numerous Calvinist nobles joined together in the so-called Compromise of the Nobles. In April 1566, armed representatives presented Margaret with a petition opposing the Inquisition and calling for changes to the religious laws. The disparaging term “beggars,” used to describe them, was soon adopted by the rebels themselves as their name: the Geuzen. Margaret initially granted limited concessions and ordered a more lenient treatment of Protestants. Nevertheless, Protestant open-air sermons spread. In August 1566, the Iconoclastic Fury erupted: radical Calvinists destroyed religious images, statues, and furnishings in numerous churches and monasteries. In response to the violence, Margaret partially withdrew her concessions and restored order with the support of royal troops. By the spring of 1567, the uprising had largely been suppressed, and many opponents, including William of Orange, left the country. Philip II nevertheless sent the Duke of Alba to the Netherlands with 15,000 soldiers and extensive powers. Margaret saw this as a sign that the king no longer trusted her and warned that Alba’s harshness would make the Spanish hated. After Alba arrived in Brussels in August 1567 and effectively excluded her from political influence, Margaret submitted her resignation. Philip II accepted it, praised her administration, and granted her a higher pension. She left the Netherlands at the end of December 1567; compared with Alba’s later military rule, her moderate administration was viewed positively by many contemporaries. Margaret subsequently lived in Piacenza and L’Aquila. In 1580, at Philip II’s request, she once again accepted the office of governor of the Netherlands, but was to exercise it jointly with her son Alessandro. In practice, Alessandro retained political power, while Margaret remained in Namur amid tensions and because of her poor health, without actually taking up the office. Not until 1583 was she allowed to return to Italy. She once again lived on her estates near L’Aquila and died in Ortona on January 18, 1586, at the age of 63. She was buried in Piacenza. In Italy she was known as “Madama d’Austria”; the Palazzo Madama and Villa Madama in Rome were among the places named after her.