Johanna von Spanien

Johanna of Austria was born on June 24, 1535, in Madrid, the daughter of King Charles I of Spain and Isabella of Portugal. A member of the House of Habsburg, she was a Spanish infanta and Archduchess of Austria. Through her marriage she later became Crown Princess of Portugal, and as the mother of King Sebastian I she formed an important link between the Spanish and Portuguese ruling houses. From 1554 to 1559, she also governed Spain as regent during the absence of her brother, Philip II. Johanna was baptized on June 30, 1535. Her godparents included her brother Philip and her cousin Louis Philip of Savoy. She spent her childhood traveling with Philip and her sister Maria between the royal palaces of Castile, especially those in Alcalá de Henares. Her mother died when Johanna was four years old. She was subsequently raised by several ladies of the court, most of whom came from Portugal. The administration of her household was initially entrusted to the Count of Cifuentes and later to Bernardino Pimentel, Count of Benavente. Johanna was taught by Juan López de la Cámara and later by Juan López de la Cuadra. She was regarded as a capable student, particularly talented in music and religion, and was physically stronger than her sister Maria. After Philip married and his wife died soon afterward, his son Don Carlos was also placed in the household of Johanna and Maria. When Maria married her cousin Maximilian of Austria in 1548, Johanna lost her closest companion and thereafter lived largely alone with her nephew Carlos. On June 30, 1552, Philip arranged the marriage of the sixteen-year-old Johanna to her fourteen-year-old cousin Johann Manuel, the Portuguese crown prince and son of her aunt Catherine. The union reflected Spain’s political aim of drawing Portugal more closely into its sphere. A proxy wedding had already taken place on January 11, 1552, in Toro. Johanna traveled to Portugal in October and reached the country in November. Her nearly two years at the Portuguese court are documented in reports sent by Luis Sarmiento, the emperor’s ambassador. She initially made a favorable impression, but was soon considered proud and difficult to approach. She led a relatively isolated life at court. Her husband died on January 11, 1554. Only a week later, Johanna gave birth to their only child, a son named Sebastian. His birth was welcomed in Portugal with great relief, since there was a persistent fear that the country might be incorporated into Spain. Johanna nevertheless had to leave her son soon afterward. When Philip was expected to travel to England in 1554 to marry Mary I, Spain needed a representative to govern in the absence of both the emperor and Philip. At the suggestion of Luis Sarmiento and with the support of Ruy Gómez de Silva, it was decided that Johanna should be recalled to Spain. She was assured that she could return to Portugal once her assignment was complete, and she entrusted Sebastian to the care of his grandmother and former mother-in-law, Catherine. Johanna left Portugal on May 15, 1554. At Alcántara she said farewell to Philip, who then continued his journey to England. As he departed, she assumed the regency of Spain and established herself and her court in Valladolid. Until Philip’s return in September 1559, she governed the country with a reputation for discipline and conscientiousness. She was supported by several Portuguese advisers who belonged to a pro-Portuguese faction at court. Her position appeared even more significant when her son Sebastian became king of Portugal in 1557 at the age of three. As his mother, Johanna could in principle also have assumed the regency of Portugal. Among her most influential confidants were Francisco de Borja and Leonor de Castro. Her government had to deal chiefly with two problems: the growing influence of the Inquisition and the urgent need for money to finance Spain’s wars in the Netherlands and against France. Johanna was expected to raise funds from Spain and the American colonies. To do so, she had to introduce new taxes, promote mining, and impose other unpopular economic measures. After her father abdicated in Philip’s favor in 1556, Philip confirmed her powers from a distance. The continuing financial demands, however, brought her into increasing conflict with the Castilian cities, the financial council, and eventually the pope. Toward the end of her regency, she asked Philip to return to Spain because her authority as a representative was insufficient to manage the growing difficulties. Johanna was also a deeply religious woman. She was drawn to a form of devotion that emphasized prayer, meditation, and the inner life, and she supported priests such as Alonso de Orozco and Diego de Estella. She also promoted Ignatius of Loyola, whose order was initially viewed with suspicion. In the summer of 1554, she became one of the first women to join the Jesuits, using the male name Mateo Sánchez. She particularly favored the Poor Clares and the Franciscans and supported their expansion in Castile. Yet she had to reconcile her independent religious interests with the strict Catholic conformity enforced by the Spanish Inquisition. The inquisitor Fernando de Valdés even attempted to associate her religious enthusiasm with the Lutheran groups discovered in Seville and Valladolid. Johanna’s regency ended on September 8, 1559, when Philip II returned to Valladolid. Together they attended a large auto-da-fé against convicted Lutherans. Johanna then took part in welcoming Philip’s new wife, Elisabeth of Valois, with whom she developed a good relationship. Although she was only 24 years old and belonged to the Jesuit order, marriage proposals continued to be made for her, including a possible union with the French king Charles IX. A marriage to her nephew Don Carlos was also considered, but the plan was abandoned because he regarded Johanna, with whom he had grown up, as a mother. As the mother of the Portuguese king Sebastian, Johanna participated in negotiations over his marriage. Together with her father and brother, she attempted to bind Portugal more closely to the Habsburgs through a marriage between Sebastian and Anna of Austria. Philip later asked her to persuade Sebastian to marry Margaret of Valois, but Sebastian refused. In 1570, Johanna attended Philip’s wedding to Anna of Austria and withdrew that same year to the monastery of Monasterio de las Descalzas Reales. She continued to visit her brother’s court at El Escorial from time to time and successfully intervened on behalf of Portuguese people in Spain and against abuses by the Inquisition. Johanna died on September 7, 1573, in the monastery of El Escorial.