Maria I.

Mary I of England, also known as Mary Tudor, Mary the Catholic, or “Bloody Mary,” was born on February 18, 1516, at the Palace of Placentia near Greenwich. She was the only surviving child of King Henry VIII and Catherine of Aragon. Her mother placed great importance on Mary’s education: besides English, the princess learned Latin, French, and Italian, studied music, and read works by ancient and contemporary scholars. For a time, she was given her own household at Ludlow Castle and treated as a possible heir to the throne. Several planned marriages, including matches with the French dauphin and the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V, were intended to secure her father’s political alliances but never took place. Mary’s life changed fundamentally when Henry VIII sought to end his marriage to Catherine so that he could marry Anne Boleyn. The king eventually declared the marriage invalid, separated from Catherine, and made himself head of the Church of England. Mary was consequently declared illegitimate and excluded from the succession. She refused, however, to acknowledge either the invalidity of her parents’ marriage or her own illegitimacy. She also rejected Henry’s authority as head of the English Church. Because of her resistance, her household was dissolved; she was sent to serve in the household of her newborn half-sister Elizabeth and separated from many of her friends. Her mother was forbidden to see her, although the two remained in contact through secret letters. Mary was thereby placed in great danger. Anyone who refused to recognize the succession act passed by Parliament could be executed as a traitor. Mary’s friends were questioned or lost their offices, and she feared for her life. Only after intense pressure did she submit to her father in 1536. In a declaration drafted by Thomas Cromwell, she accepted the invalidity of her parents’ marriage, her status as an illegitimate daughter, and Henry’s supremacy over the Church. This saved her and her supporters, but it also forced her to surrender central convictions. In secret, she sought papal absolution. After her submission, Henry welcomed her back to court, though he did not legitimize her. Mary remained faithful to her Catholic beliefs. She was close to her younger half-brother Edward, who was born in 1537 to Jane Seymour, and became his godmother. She also developed a close relationship with her final stepmother, Catherine Parr. Together they read and translated humanist works. Mary was a passionate rider and hunter, enjoyed music, and took an interest in fashion and jewelry as well as card games. In 1544, Henry restored both Mary and Elizabeth to the succession, but still did not legally place them on the same footing as a legitimate daughter. After Henry’s death in 1547, his underage son Edward VI became king. Under the influence of Protestant regents, the religious conflict intensified. Mary continued to celebrate the Catholic Mass in her household and resisted the new religious laws. She repeatedly asked Charles V for support and even considered fleeing to Europe. She nevertheless remained in England, despite believing that her life was in danger. When Edward became seriously ill, he altered the succession established by Henry and named the Protestant Jane Grey as his successor, excluding both Mary and Elizabeth. After Edward’s death in July 1553, Mary fled to Kenninghall in Norfolk and gathered supporters there. John Dudley, who controlled the government, underestimated her determination to defend her claim. Mary proclaimed herself queen and quickly won the support of the landed nobility, numerous towns, and much of the population. Dudley’s forces failed to capture Framlingham Castle, and his regime collapsed. On July 19, Mary was proclaimed queen of England and Ireland in London. On October 1, 1553, she was crowned at Westminster Abbey. She thus became the first woman in English history to rule as queen in her own right with the full powers of a sovereign. At first, Mary pardoned many prisoners, including prominent Catholics. She initially spared Jane Grey and her husband, Guildford Dudley, after being persuaded that Jane had accepted the crown only under John Dudley’s pressure. The situation changed after Wyatt’s Rebellion in 1554, which opposed Mary’s planned marriage to the Spanish crown prince Philip. Jane Grey, Guildford Dudley, and Jane’s father, Henry Grey, were executed for treason. Elizabeth, whose name had been associated with the rebellion, was also imprisoned in the Tower, though she was later placed under house arrest. Mary married Philip on July 25, 1554, in Winchester. The marriage treaty limited his political authority in England, but the union was deeply unpopular among the English nobility and population. Mary fell deeply in love with her husband and hoped for a Catholic heir. Twice she believed herself to be pregnant, but both pregnancies proved to be false. Philip left England in 1555 and did not return until 1557. The central aim of Mary’s reign was the restoration of Catholicism. She had her parents’ marriage recognized as valid again and repealed Edward’s religious laws. At the end of 1554, the papal legate Reginald Pole reunited England with the Roman Church. From 1555, the medieval heresy laws were enforced. Nearly 300 Protestants were burned, including several bishops and, in 1556, Thomas Cranmer, who had once declared Henry’s marriage to Catherine invalid. The persecutions made Mary increasingly hated and strengthened Protestant resistance. Protestant propaganda therefore gave her the name “Bloody Mary.” Historians differ over the extent of her personal responsibility, but she could have ended the persecutions at any time. Alongside religious policy, Mary pursued reforms in government and the economy. She reorganized customs and monopoly taxes, promoted trade, and supported the establishment of the Muscovy Company, which opened English trade with Russia. She also strengthened towns, poor relief, and public administration. Some of these measures produced their full effects only later and were continued by Elizabeth. In foreign policy, Mary closely aligned England with Spain. In 1557, Philip persuaded her to support a war against France. English forces initially achieved successes, but in January 1558 they lost Calais, England’s last possession on the European mainland. The loss dealt a severe blow to national morale. Mary’s health deteriorated during her final years. She suffered from depression, serious physical complaints, fever, insomnia, and problems with her eyesight. Because she remained childless, she eventually had to recognize Elizabeth as her successor. Mary died on November 17, 1558, at St James’s Palace in London, aged 42. She was buried in Westminster Abbey; later, James I had Elizabeth buried in the same tomb above her. Mary’s reign remained controversial because of the religious persecutions and the loss of Calais. At the same time, she secured her throne despite considerable opposition and demonstrated that a woman in England could rule with the same rights and responsibilities as a male monarch.